The Media and Warfare

"Wars are not only fought by military means. Alongside the fighting on the ground, at sea and in the air, a media war is fought over public opinion and the willingness to fight of populations and the troops"

-General Clyde McArthur

CONFLICT AND WAR HAVE ALWAYS BEEN HIGHLY NEWSWORTHY. Indeed depictions of the course of wars, of victories and defeats, often dramatized and sensationalized have the ability of engaging people both emotionally and intellectually.  They can further influence the perception of large segments of a population, and at times, the entire world. Litigious subjects such as war and war news also tend to attract large audiences and thus carry the immense power of shaping not only public opinion, but the course of war by either contributing to its resolution, or instigating further campaigns of violence as the case may be. The media can also contribute to conflict involuntarily. Such passive incitement to violence most frequently occurs when journalists have poor professional skills, when media culture is underdeveloped or when there is lack of independent media and adequate Civil-military Relations (CMR).

Often referred to as 'media propaganda', some forms of media have been used in warfare since ancient times. Prior to the development of mass media, leaders with great power lacked a true mass audience channel. However, great military figures and generals such as Napoleon, Caesar and Alexander the Great were considered the ancestors of modern propagandists though their influence was limited to the spread of coins, art monuments and cultural performances. To be sure, the word 'propaganda' originated in the sixteenth century during the Counter-Reformation when Pope Gregory XV established the Congregation to Propagate the Faith. However, in more recent times, the word 'propaganda' carries a negative, pejorative connotation. For example, Webster's dictionary defines propaganda as the 'spreading of ideas, information, or rumour for the purpose of helping or injuring an institution, a cause, or a person. Conversely, definitions of propaganda vary from the notion of general, mostly neutral organized process of persuasion to the making of deliberately one-sided statements to a mass audience.

Historically, World War I was a crucial period in the organized use of media in warfare. For the first time during the war, the governments and ministries of almost all nations involved in the war consolidated their efforts in the pursuit of the most successful techniques for mass persuasion. Further, the new technology of the time allowed for mass-produced print materials, newspapers and movies to reach a wide audience, while government endorsement provided national credibility and an orchestrated effort. The British government provided the first example of persuasive organization on a mass scale. Their War Propaganda Bureau employed the media in support of multiple agendas. The bureau's use of the press, posters, pamphlets and films accompanied organized lectures, patriotic clubs and rallies in support of the armed conflict. In the United States (US), on the other hand, President Wilson established the Committee of Public Information (CPI), popularly known as the Creel Committee. The Committee's activities aimed at achieving political consensus and social cohesion in support of the US engagement in combat, which was favorable at the time. The Nazi, for their part, mastered the use of slogans and bold-colored visuals, but most importantly, perfected the use of town rallies arousing emotional frenzy and support for their leaders.

In Africa, in the 1990s (especially Rwanda and Sierra Leone) the continent equally saw the evolution of propaganda and the dangerous impact of the new electronic media and the dissemination of hate messages that led to massive killings. This type of media use was connected with some of the most vicious genocidal campaigns in the history of humankind. The Rwandan Radio et Télévision Libres de Mille Collines played a crucial role in initiating the slaughter of more than half a million people in less than one hundred days.

Given that conventional media-radio, television and newspaper-may be manipulated by actors intent on instigating violent conflict, one aspect of media and warfare that is important to consider is media professionalism. Media professionalism includes not only journalists, but also the individuals behind the scenes, such as editor, station managers, and owners. One of the indicators of professionalism in this case is journalist capacity. Journalist capacity refers to journalists' ability to carry out their charge with a reasonable degree of professional integrity and skill. The level of journalist capacity is critical because more capable journalists tend to make media outlets less susceptible to abuse and this points to value of journalism training.

With regards to the concept of peace-oriented media coverage, although social scientist hypothesized about the positive role of propaganda, literature rarely addresses the positive influence of mass media. Such influence includes methods of reconciliation in an effort to bring peace and harmony to the community. Without a doubt, while the media can, and often does contribute to the escalation of tensions and conflict during war and conflict situations, this does not mean the media cannot play a positive role as well. A more ethical use of the media can surely counterbalance the negative effects and/or reverse the damage caused by war and war propaganda. In addition, media that are sensitive towards the task of promoting tolerant and diverse viewpoints can be both informative as well as entertaining and have a large potential audience.

Furthermore, media's efforts of peace and harmony can also be seen to benefit from globalization and new media technology. For example, the potential to lower the threshold of entry to the global debate for traditionally unheard or marginalized voices has contributed greatly to the cause of peace. Such media transcend geo-political barriers created by national media system and thereby boost the efforts channeled towards peace and peace building. It is in this regard that the media, especially in more recent times has played a critical role in preventing and alleviating conflict, enhancing peace, as well as protecting Human Rights.

All in all, as a result of their ability to reach and influence large numbers of people, the media carry immense power in shaping the course of conflict and war and this is done through communicating information that influence the public perception of and acting as watchdogs, to verify the accuracy of the facts about the conduct of warfare. Although there are many examples of the media's negative contribution to the escalation of violence during conflict, fair and accurate journalism and media content that builds confidence and counteracts misperceptions may equally have the potential in both conflict prevention and the transformation of conflict situations. However, to achieve this, the military establishment should also contribute towards media training on military matters and war issues. It is not enough to assume that simply because journalists were well-trained in civilian institutions they can adequately report on war and military issues. The military establishment should offer briefings on defence policies to journalists on a regular basis. Such briefings could help educate the reporters who cover military activities including conduct of warfare and other military operations. It is only then that the media can enhance public support for military operations because they would report with confidence and from a point of view of being fully aware of the context of military operations and the facts of their reports. 

REFERENCES

Thomas, P. (1999): Power in Africa: The Media and the Genocide in Rwanda. St. Martins press, New York.

Jowett, G & O'Donnell, W. V. (1999): The Story of the History of Media use in War. Penguin Press Printer, London.

Giltlin, B. & Hallin, G. (1994): The Impact of War Journalism.  Freedom Press International, New Jersey.

Crosswell, P. (2001): Culture and the Media: A Review of the Cultural Imperatives in Traditional and Modern warfare. Cambridge University Press, London.

Botes, R. F. (1996): "Angola: The Media and Conflict Transformation," Pambazuka News, August 5.